11-12/1/2018

Etherpad

Please do take notes on the course etherpad:

http://pad.software-carpentry.org/2018-01-11-ireland

  • Communal notes: share your understanding, and benefit from others
  • Ask questions: get detailed answers with links and examples
  • A record/reference for after the course

Learning Objectives

  • Fundamentals of R and RStudio
  • Fundamentals of programming
  • Best practices for organising code
  • Best practices for reproducibility
  • Effective data analysis in R

01. Introduction to
R and RStudio

Learning Objectives

  • Understand what R is
  • Understand what RStudio is
  • Understand why R is different from something like Excel

What is R?

  • R is a programming language
  • R is the software that interprets programs written in the R programming language
  • Have you used R before?
  • R is free (commercial support can be bought)
  • R is widely-used and interdisciplinary (sciences, humanities, engineering, etc.)
  • R has many excellent packages for statistics and data analysis, visualisation and graphics
  • R has an international, friendly user community

“But I already know Excel…”

  • Excel is fine for many things, but R is great for reproducibility…
  • Separates data from analysis
  • Not point-and-click: every step is explicit and transparent
  • Easy to share, adapt, reuse, publish analyses with new/modified data (GitHub)
  • R can be run on supercomputers…

What is RStudio?

  • RStudio is an integrated development environment (IDE) - all platforms
  • Interaction with R (console/‘scratchpad’)
  • Script/code editor
  • Graphics/visualisation
  • Project management (git integration)

02. Getting to know RStudio

Learning Objectives

  • Familiarity with the RStudio IDE
  • Introduce R syntax
  • Learn good project management practices
  • Set up a working directory with version control (git) in RStudio

RStudio overview - Interactive Demo

Challenge 01 (5min)

  • Try out some of your own calculations in the interactive console
2 ** 16
## [1] 65536
15 %% 4
## [1] 3
15 %/% 4
## [1] 3

Variables

Variables are like named boxes

  • An item of data goes in the box (called Name)
  • When we refer to the box (variable) by its name, we really mean what’s in the box

Variables - Interactive Demo

name <- "Samia"
name
## [1] "Samia"
x <- 1 / 40
x
## [1] 0.025
x ^ 2
## [1] 0.000625
log(x)
## [1] -3.688879

Functions

  • Function (log(), sin() etc.) ≈ “canned script”
    • automate complicated tasks
    • make code more readable and reusable
  • Some functions are built-in (in base packages, e.g. sqrt(), lm(), plot())
  • Some functions are imported in libraries
  • Functions usually take arguments (input)
  • Functions often return values (output)

Getting Help For Functions

INTERACTIVE DEMO

args(fname)            # arguments for fname
?fname                 # help page for fname
help(fname)            # help page for fname
??fname                # any mention of fname
help.search("text")    # any mention of "text"
vignette(fname)        # worked examples for fname
vignette()             # show all available vignettes

Removing Variables

To remove variables from your workspace, use the rm() function

x <- 1
ls()
## [1] "name" "x"
rm(x, name)
ls()
## character(0)

To remove all variables use the broom in the Environment tab (Rstudio), or:

rm(list=ls())

Challenge 02 (5min)

What will be the value of each variable after each statement in the following program?

mass <- 47.5
age <- 122
mass <- mass * 2.3
age <- age - 20
  • mass = 47.5, age = 102
  • mass = 109.25, age = 102
  • mass = 47.5, age = 122
  • mass = 109.25, age = 122

Good Variable Names

  • Descriptive (but not too long)
  • Avoid existing names (e.g. mean, matrix, list, etc.)
  • Consistent style
    • periods.between.words
    • underscores_between_words
    • camelCaseToSeparateWords

IN R

  • letters, numbers, underscores, and periods ([a-zA-z0-9_.])
  • cannot start with a number
  • whitespace is not allowed

Good Project Management Practices

No single ‘right way’ - only good principles

  • Use a single working directory per project/analysis
    • easier to move, share, and find files
    • use relative paths to locate files
  • Treat raw data as read-only
    • keep in separate subfolder (data)?
  • Clean data ready for work
    • keep cleaned/modified data in separate folder?
  • Consider output generated by analysis to be disposable
    • can be regenerated by running analysis/code
    • don’t place under version control

Example Directory Structure

Project Management in RStudio

  • RStudio tries to help you manage your projects
    • R Project concept - files and subdirectory structure
    • git integration
    • switching between multiple projects within RStudio
    • stores project history

Let’s create a project in RStudio

Using git for version control.

INTERACTIVE DEMO

Working in RStudio

We can write code in several ways in RStudio

  • At the console (you’ve done this)
  • In a script
  • As an interactive notebook
  • As a markdown file
  • As a Shiny app

We’re going to create a new dataset and R script.

  • Putting code in a script makes it easier to modify, share and run

INTERACTIVE DEMO

03. A First Analysis in RStudio

Learning Objectives

  • Load data into an R project
  • Produce summary statistics of data
  • Extract subsets of data
  • Basic plotting in R (base graphics)

Our Task

Loading Data - Interactive Demo

  • You created data manually earlier, but this is rare
  • Data are most commonly read in from plain text files

Data files can be inspected in RStudio

read.csv(file = "data/inflammation-01.csv", header = FALSE)

Challenge 03 (5min)

How would you open a similar data file that had:

  • a comma (,) as the decimal point character
  • semi-colon (;) as the field separator

using read.csv()

Use the help function and documentation

Indexing Data - Interactive Demo

  • We use indexing to refer to elements of a variable
    • square brackets: []
    • row, then column: [row, column]
data[1, 1]     # First value in dataset
data[30, 20]   # Middle value of dataset
  • To get a range of values, use the : separator (meaning ‘to’)
data[1:4, 1:4]   # rows 1 to 4; columns 1 to 4
  • To select a complete row or column, leave it blank
data[5, ]     # row 5
data[, 16]    # column 16

Summary Functions - Interactive Demo

  • R provides useful functions to summarise data
  • We can use indexing to get summary information on individual patients and days
max(data)           # largest value in dataset
max(data[2, ])      # largest value for patient 2
min(data[, 7])      # smallest value on day 7
mean(data[, 7])     # mean value on day 7
sd(data[, 7])       # standard deviation of values on day 7

Challenge 04 (5min)

Given the vector in R:

animal <- c("m", "o", "n", "k", "e", "y")

Can you generate slices that do the following:

  • return the first three characters
  • return the last three characters
  • return the first three characters in reverse order

  • What do animal[-1] and animal[-4] do?
  • Can you explain what animal[-1:-4] does?

Repetitive Calculations - Interactive Demo

  • We could calculate mean inflammation for every patient (or day) this way, but it’s tedious

Computers exist to do tedious things for us

  • R has several ways to automate this process
  • We’d like to apply a function (mean) to each row in the data:
apply(X = data, MARGIN = 1, FUN = mean)
  • MARGIN = 1: rows
  • MARGIN = 2: columns
rowMeans(data)
colMeans(data)

Base Graphics

“The purpose of computing is insight, not numbers.” - Richard Hamming

  • R has many available graphics packages
    • graphically beautiful
    • specific problem domains
  • ‘built-in’ graphics are known as base graphics
  • Base graphics are powerful tools for visualisation and understanding

Plotting - Interactive Demo

plot(avg_inflammation_patient)

max_day_inflammation <- apply(dat, 2, max)
plot(max_day_inflammation)

plot(apply(dat,2,min))       # 3 functions in one!

Challenge 05 (5min)

Can you add a plot to your script showing:

  • standard deviation, by day
  • a histogram of inflammation by day

(don’t forget to commit changes)

04. Data Types and
Structures in R

Learning Objectives

  • Basic data types in R
  • Common data structures in R
  • How to find out the type/structure of R data
  • Understand how R’s data types and structures relate to your own data

Data Types and Structures in R

  • R is mostly used for data analysis
  • R has special types and structures to help you work with data
  • Much of the focus is on tabular data (data frames)

INTERACTIVE DEMO

Understanding data types, their uses, and how they relate to your own data is key to successful analysis with R

(it’s not just about programming)

What Data Types Do You Expect?

What data types would you expect to see?

What examples of data types can you think of from your own experience?

Data Types in R

  • Data types in R are atomic
    • All data is one of these types
    • All data structures are built from these
  1. logical: TRUE, FALSE
  2. numeric:
    • integer: 3, 2L, 123456
    • double (decimal): 3.0, -23.45, pi
  3. complex: 3+0i, 1+4i
  4. character (text): "a", 'SWC', "This is not a string"
  5. raw: binary data

INTERACTIVE DEMO

Challenge 06 (5min)

Create examples of data with the following characteristics:

  • name: answer, type: logical
  • name: height, type: numeric
  • name: dog_name, type: character

For each variable, test that it has the data type you intended

Five Common R Data Structures

  • vector
  • factor
  • list
  • matrix
  • data.frame

INTERACTIVE DEMO

Challenge 07 (5min)

Vectors are atomic: they can contain only a single data type

What data type are the following vectors (xx)?

xx <- c(1.7, "a")
xx <- c(TRUE, 2)
xx <- c("a", TRUE)

Options: logical, integer, numeric, character

Coercion

  • Coercion means changing data from one type to another
  • R will perform implicit coercion on vectors to make them atomic

logical \(\rightarrow\) integer \(\rightarrow\) double \(\rightarrow\) complex \(\rightarrow\) character

If there are formatting problems with your data, you might not have the type you expect when you import into R

  • Manual coercion with as.<type_name>()

INTERACTIVE DEMO

Factors

Data often comes in one of two types:

  • quantitative: e.g. integers or real numbers
    (weight <- 17.2; rooms <- 7)
  • categorical: e.g. ordered or unordered classes
    (grade <- "8", coat <- "brindled")

This kind of distinction critical in many applications (e.g. statistical modelling)

  • Factors are special vectors that represent categorical data
  • Stored as vectors of labelled integers
  • Cannot be treated as strings/text

INTERACTIVE DEMO

Challenge 08 (5min)

Create a new factor, defining control and case experiments, and inspect the result:

f <- factor(c("case", "control", "case", "control", "case"))
str(f)
##  Factor w/ 2 levels "case","control": 1 2 1 2 1

In some statistical analyses in R it is important that the control level is numbered 1

  • Using the help available to you in RStudio, can you create a factor with the same values, but where the control level is numbered 1?

Matrices

  • Matrices are 2D vectors of atomic values
    • An extremely important data type in numerical analyses

INTERACTIVE DEMO

# Create matrix of zeroes
m1 <- matrix(0, ncol = 6, nrow = 3)

# Create matrix of numbers 1 and 2
m2 <- matrix(c(1, 2), ncol = 4, nrow = 3)

Challenge 09 (5min)

Can you create a matrix with:

  • 5 columns
  • 10 rows
  • Containing the numbers 1:50
  • Did the matrix() function fill the matrix by column, or by row?
  • If the matrix was filled by row, can you create a new matrix that fills by column (or vice versa)

Use the Rstudio documentation to help

Lists

  • lists are like vectors, but can hold any combination of datatype
    • elements in a list are denoted by [[]] and can be named

INTERACTIVE DEMO

# create a list
l <- list(1, 'a', TRUE, matrix(0, nrow = 2, ncol = 2), f)
l_named <- list(a = "SWC", b = 1:4)

Logical Indexing

  • We have used indexing, slicing and names to get data by ‘location’
> animal[c(2,4,6)]
[1] "o" "k" "y"
> m2[2:3, 3:4]
     [,1] [,2]
[1,]    2    1
[2,]    1    2
> l_named$b
[1] 1 2 3 4
  • Logical indexes can select data that meets certain criteria

INTERACTIVE DEMO

x <- c(5.4, 6.2, 7.1, 4.8, 7.5)
mask <- c(TRUE, FALSE, TRUE, FALSE, TRUE)
x[mask]
x[x > 7]

05. Dataframes

Learning Objectives

  • Understand the concept of a data.frame
  • Understand how a data.frame is built from R data structures
  • Know how to access any element of a data.frame
  • Read data into a data.frame
  • Write data out from a data.frame

Let’s look at a data.frame

  • The cats data is a data.frame

INTERACTIVE DEMO

> class(cats)
[1] "data.frame"
> cats
    coat weight likes_string
1 calico    2.1            1
2  black    5.0            0
3  tabby    3.2            1

What is a data.frame?

  • The standard R data structure for storing tabular, rectangular data
  • A named list of vectors having identical lengths.
    • Each column is a vector
    • Each vector can be a different data type
  • This is very much LIKE a spreadsheet, but…
    • Columns are constrained to a type
    • Columns are all the same length

Creating a data.frame

INTERACTIVE DEMO

# Create a data frame
df <- data.frame(a=c(1,2,3), b=c('eeny', 'meeny', 'miney'),
                 c=c(TRUE, FALSE, TRUE))
summary(df)
##        a           b         c          
##  Min.   :1.0   eeny :1   Mode :logical  
##  1st Qu.:1.5   meeny:1   FALSE:1        
##  Median :2.0   miney:1   TRUE :2        
##  Mean   :2.0                            
##  3rd Qu.:2.5                            
##  Max.   :3.0

Challenge 10 (5min)

I made some mistakes when defining this data.frame.

Can you spot and fix them?

author_book <- data.frame(author_first = c('Charles', 'Ernst', "Theodosius"),
                          author_last = c(Darwin, Mayr, Dobzhansky),
                          year = c(1942, 1970))

Challenge 11 (5min)

Can you predict the class for each column in the following example?

country_climate <- data.frame(country=c("Canada", "Panama",
                                        "South Africa", "Australia"),
                               climate=c("cold", "hot", "temperate",
                                         "hot/temperate"),
                               temperature=c(10, 30, 18, "15"),
                               northern_hemisphere=c(TRUE, TRUE, FALSE,
                                                     "FALSE"),
                               has_kangaroo=c(FALSE, FALSE, FALSE, 1))

Challenge 12 (5min)

Can you create the following data frame, but make b a vector of character elements, rather than a factor?

df_chr <- data.frame(a=c(1,2,3), b=c('eeny', 'meeny', 'miney'),
                     c=c(TRUE, FALSE, TRUE))

Use the RStudio help

Adding rows and columns

  • We bind vectors to add columns, and lists to add rows
    • Adding a new factor level may be required
df <- cbind(df, vals = 3:1)
levels(df$b) <- c('eeny', 'meeny', 'miney', 'mo')
df <- rbind(df, list(4, 'mo', FALSE, 0))

INTERACTIVE DEMO

Writing data.frame to file

INTERACTIVE DEMO

write.table(df, "data/df_example.tab", sep="\t")

We need to provide

  • the data.frame
  • the path to the file being written
  • a column separator

Reading into a data.frame

INTERACTIVE DEMO

The link is available on the course Etherpad

gapminder <- read.table("data/gapminder-FiveYearData.csv", sep=",", header=TRUE)
  • R can also read data direct from the internet
url <- paste("https://raw.githubusercontent.com/resbaz/r-novice-gapminder-files/",
             "master/data/gapminder-FiveYearData.csv", sep = '')
gapminder <- read.table(url, sep=",", header=TRUE)

Investigating gapminder

INTERACTIVE DEMO

str(gapminder)              # structure of the data.frame
typeof(gapminder$year)      # data type of a column
length(gapminder)           # length of the data.frame
nrow(gapminder)             # number of rows in data.frame
ncol(gapminder)             # number of columns in data.frame
dim(gapminder)              # number of rows and columns in data.frame
colnames(gapminder)         # column names from data.frame
head(gapminder)             # first few rows of dataframe
summary(gapminder)          # summary of data in data.frame columns

Subsets of data.frames

  • data.frames are lists and subset in the same way
  • data.frames are 2D data (tabular) and subset like matrixes

INTERACTIVE DEMO

gapminder[3]                  # single column (get dataframe)
gapminder[["lifeExp"]]        # single column (get vector/factor)
gapminder$year                # single column (get vector/factor)
gapminder[1:3,]               # row slice (get dataframe)
gapminder[3,]                 # row slice (get dataframe)
gapminder[, 3]                # column slice (get vector/factor)
gapminder[, 3, drop=FALSE]    # column slice (get dataframe)

Challenge 13 (5min)

I made some mistakes when subsetting gapminder, can you fix them?

# Extract observations collected for the year 1957
gapminder[gapminder$year = 1957,]

# Extract all columns except 1 through 4
gapminder[, -1:4]

# Extract all rows where life expectancy is greater than 80 years
gapminder[gapminder$lifeExp > 80]

# ADVANCED: Extract rows for years 2002 and 2007
gapminder[gapminder$year == 2002 | 2007]

06. Packages

Learning Objectives

  • Understand what packages are
  • How to install a desired package
  • How to use a package in your code

Packages

In R:

  • a package is the basic unit of reusable code
  • many useful and specialist tools are distributed as packages
  • over 10,000 packages are available at CRAN
  • you can distribute your own code as a package

INTERACTIVE DEMO

installed.packages()               # see installed packages
install.packages("packagename")    # install a new package
update.packages()                  # update installed packages
library(packagename)               # import a package for use in your code

CRAN - the Comprehensive R Archive Network: https://cran.r-project.org/

Challenge 14 (5min)

Can you check if the following packages are installed on your system, and install them if necessary?

dplyr
ggplot2
knitr

07. Creating Publication-
Quality Graphics

Visualisation is Critical!

Learning Objectives

  • Be able to use ggplot2 to generate publication-quality graphics
  • Understand the grammar of graphics

The Grammar of Graphics

  • ggplot2 is part of the Tidyverse, a collection of packages for data science
    • ggplot2 is the graphics package
  • Implements the “Grammar of Graphics”
    • Separates data from its representation
    • Helps iteratively update/refine plots
    • Helps build complex, effective visualisations from simple elements
  • data
  • aesthetics
  • geoms
  • layers

A Basic Scatterplot

  • You can use ggplot2 like base graphics
    • qplot()plot()

INTERACTIVE DEMO

library(ggplot2)
plot(gapminder$lifeExp, gapminder$gdpPercap, col=gapminder$continent)
qplot(lifeExp, gdpPercap, data=gapminder, colour=continent)

What is a Plot? aesthetics

  • Each observation in the data is a point
  • A point’s aesthetics determine how it is rendered
    • co-ordinates on the image; size; shape; colour
  • aesthetics can be constant or mapped to variables
  • Many different plots can be generated from the same data by changing aesthetics

What is a Plot? aesthetics

  • aesthetics define datapoint representations as a new dataset

This should remind you of a data.frame

What is a Plot? geoms

geom (short for geometry) defines the “type” of representation

  • If data are drawn as points: scatterplot
  • If data are drawn as lines: line plot
  • If data are drawn as bars: bar chart
  • ggplot2 provides several geom types

What is a Plot? geoms

The same data and aesthetics can be shown with different geom

INTERACTIVE DEMO

# Generate plot of GDP per capita against life Expectancy
p <- ggplot(data=gapminder, aes(x=lifeExp, y=gdpPercap, color=continent))
p + geom_point()
p + geom_line()

Challenge 15 (5min)

Can you create another figure in your script showing how life expectancy changes as a function of time, as a scatterplot?

What is a Plot? layers

  • We’ve just used another “Grammar of Graphics” concept: layers
    • ggplot2 plots are built as layers

All layers have two components

  1. data and aesthetics
  2. a geom
  • Data and aesthetics can be defined in a base ggplot object
    • values from the base are inherited by the other layers
    • the base can be overridden in other layers

What is a Plot? layers

  • Data and aesthetics can be defined in a base ggplot object
    • values from the base are inherited by the other layers
    • the base can be overridden in other layers
p <- ggplot(data=gapminder, aes(x=lifeExp, y=gdpPercap, colour=continent))
p + geom_point()

What is a Plot? layers

  • Data and aesthetics can be defined in a base ggplot object
    • values from the base are inherited by the other layers
    • the base can be overridden in other layers
p <- ggplot(data=gapminder, aes(x=lifeExp, y=gdpPercap, colour=continent))
p + geom_line(aes(group=country))

INTERACTIVE DEMO

What is a Plot? layers

  • We can use several layers of geoms to build a plot
    • alpha controls opacity for a layer
p <- ggplot(data=gapminder, aes(x=lifeExp, y=gdpPercap, color=continent))
p + geom_line(aes(group=country)) + geom_point(alpha=0.4)

INTERACTIVE DEMO

Challenge 16 (5min)

Can you create another figure in your script showing how life expectancy changes as a function of time, coloured by continent, with two layers:

  • a line plot, grouping points by country
  • a scatterplot showing each data point, with 35% opacity

(commit your changes to the gapminder.R script)

Transformations and scales

  • Data transformations are handled with scale layers
  • scale layers map data values to new aesthetics on the plot
    • axis scaling (log scales)
    • colour scaling (changing palettes)

INTERACTIVE DEMO

Statistics layers

  • Some geom layers transform the dataset
    • Usually this is a data summary (e.g. smoothing or binning)

INTERACTIVE DEMO

Multi-panel figures

  • So far all our plots have all data in a single figure
  • Comparisons can be clearer with multiple panels:
    • facets
    • “small multiples plots”

Use the facet_wrap() layer to generate grids of plots

INTERACTIVE DEMO

# Compare life expectancy over time by continent
p <- ggplot(data=gapminder, aes(x=year, y=lifeExp, colour=continent,
                                group=country))
p <- p + geom_line() + scale_y_log10()
p + facet_wrap(~continent)

Challenge 17 (10min)

Can you create a scatterplot and contour densities of GDP per capita against population size, with colour filled by continent?

ADVANCED: Transform the x axis to better visualise data spread, and use facets to panel density plots by year.

08. Working with
data.frames in dplyr

Learning Objectives

  • How to manipulate data.frames with the six verbs of dplyr
    • a ‘grammar of data manipulation’
  • select()
  • filter()
  • group_by()
  • summarize()
  • mutate()
  • %>% (pipe)

What and Why is dplyr?

  • dplyr is another package in the Tidyverse
  • Facilitates analysis by groups
    • Helps avoid repetition
> mean(gapminder[gapminder$continent == "Africa", "gdpPercap"])
[1] 2193.755
> mean(gapminder[gapminder$continent == "Americas", "gdpPercap"])
[1] 7136.11
> mean(gapminder[gapminder$continent == "Asia", "gdpPercap"])
[1] 7902.15

Avoiding repetition (though automation) makes code

  • robust
  • reproducible

Split-Apply-Combine

select() - Interactive Demo

library(dplyr)
select(gapminder, year, country, gdpPercap)
gapminder %>% select(year, country, gdpPercap)

filter()

  • filter() selects rows on the basis of some condition

INTERACTIVE DEMO

filter(gapminder, continent=="Europe")

# Select gdpPercap by country and year, only for Europe
eurodata <- gapminder %>%
              filter(continent == "Europe") %>%
              select(year, country, gdpPercap)

Challenge 18 (5min)

Can you write a single line (which may span multiple lines and include pipes) that produces a dataframe containing:

  • life expectancy, country, and year data
  • only for African nations

How many rows does the dataframe have?

group_by() - Interactive Demo

group_by(gapminder, continent)
gapminder %>% group_by(continent)

summarize() - Interactive Demo

# Produce table of mean GDP by continent
gapminder %>%
    group_by(continent) %>%
    summarize(meangdpPercap=mean(gdpPercap))

Challenge 19 (5min)

  • Can you calculate the average life expectancy per country in the gapminder data?
  • Which nation has longest life expectancy, and which the shortest?

count() and n()

  • Two useful functions related to summarize()
    • count()/tally(): a function that reports a table of counts by group
    • n(): a function used within summarize(), filter() or mutate() to represent count by group

INTERACTIVE DEMO

gapminder %>%
  filter(year == 2002) %>%
  count(continent, sort = TRUE)

gapminder %>%
  group_by(continent) %>%
  summarize(se_lifeExp = sd(lifeExp)/sqrt(n()))

mutate()

  • mutate() is a function allowing creation of new variables

several dplyr verbs can be chained in a single operation

INTERACTIVE DEMO

# Calculate GDP in $billion
gdp_bill <- gapminder %>%
  mutate(gdp_billion = gdpPercap * pop / 10^9)

# Calculate total/sd of GDP by continent and year
gdp_bycontinents_byyear <- gapminder %>%
    mutate(gdp_billion=gdpPercap*pop/10^9) %>%
    group_by(continent,year) %>%
    summarize(mean_gdpPercap=mean(gdpPercap),
              sd_gdpPercap=sd(gdpPercap),
              mean_gdp_billion=mean(gdp_billion),
              sd_gdp_billion=sd(gdp_billion))

09. Program Flow Control

Learning Objectives

  • How to make data-dependent choices in R
  • Use if() and else()
  • Repeat operations in R
  • Use for() loops
  • vectorisation to avoid repeating operations

if()else

  • We often want to perform operations (or not) conditional on a piece of data
    • The if() and else construct is useful for this
# if
if (condition is true) {
  PERFORM ACTION
}

# if ... else
if (condition is true) {
  PERFORM ACTION
} else {  # i.e. if the condition is false,
  PERFORM ALTERNATIVE ACTION
}

INTERACTIVE DEMO

Challenge 20 (5min)

Can you use an if() statement to report whether there are any records from 2002 in the gapminder dataset?

Can you do the same for 2012?

HINT: Look at the help for the any() function

for() loops

  • for() loops are a very common construct in programming
    • for each <item> in a group, <do something (with the item)>
  • Not as useful in R as in some other languages
for(iterator in set of values){
  do a thing
}

INTERACTIVE DEMO

while() loops

  • while() loops are useful when you need to do something while some condition is true
while(this condition is true){
  do a thing
}

INTERACTIVE DEMO

Challenge 21 (5min)

Can you use a for() loop and an if() statement to print whether each letter in the alphabet is a vowel?

HINT: Use R’s help for letters and %in%

Vectorisation

  • for() and while() loops can be useful, but are not efficient
  • Most functions in R are vectorised
    • When applied to a vector, apply to all elements in that vector
    • No need to loop

You’ve already seen and used much of this behaviour

INTERACTIVE DEMO

x < 1:4
x * 2
y <- 6:9
x + y
m <- matrix(1:12, nrow = 3, ncol = 4)
m * m
m %*% m

Challenge 22 (5min)

We want to sum the following series of fractions

\(\frac{1}{1^2} + \frac{1}{2^2} + \frac{1}{3^2} + \ldots + \frac{1}{n^2}\)

for large values of \(n\)

Can you do this using vectorisation for \(n = 10,000\)?

10. Functions

Learning Objectives

  • Why functions are important
  • How to write a new function
  • Defining a function that takes arguments
  • Returning a value from a function
  • Set default values for function arguments

Why Functions?

  • Functions let us run a complex series of commands in one go
    • under a memorable/descriptive name
    • invoked with that name
    • with a defined set of inputs and outputs
    • to perform a logically coherent task

Functions are the building blocks of programming

  • Small functions with one obvious, clearly-defined task are good

Defining a Function

  • You will often need to write your own functions
  • They take a standard form
<function_name> <- function(<arg1>, <arg2>) {
  <do something>
  return(<result>)
}

INTERACTIVE DEMO

my_sum <- function(a, b) {
  the_sum <- a + b
  return(the_sum)
}

Documentation

  • So far, you’ve been able to use R’s built-in help to see function documentation
    • This isn’t available for your functions unless you write it

Your future self will thank you!

(and so will your colleagues)

Write programs for people, not for computers

  • State what the code does (and why)
  • Define inputs and outputs
  • Give an example

INTERACTIVE DEMO

Function Arguments

  • We can define functions that take multiple arguments
  • We can also define default values for arguments

INTERACTIVE DEMO

# Calculate total GDP in gapminder data
calcGDP <- function(data, year_in=NULL, country_in=NULL) {
  gdp <- gapminder %>% mutate(gdp=(pop * gdpPercap))
  if (!is.null(year_in)) {
    gdp <- gdp %>% filter(year %in% year_in)
  }
  if (!is.null(country_in)) {
    gdp <- gdp %>% filter(country %in% country_in)
  }
  return(gdp)
}

Challenge 23 (10min)

Can you write a function that takes an optional argument called letter, which:

  • Plots the life expectancy per year for each country
  • Only for countries whose name starts with a letter in letter
  • Uses facet_wrap() to produce a grid of output graphs

  • ADVANCED: Make the facet wrapping optional

HINT: The following code may be useful

starts.with <- substr(gapminder$country, start = 1, stop = 1)
az.countries <- gapminder[starts.with %in% c("A", "Z"), ]

11. Dynamic Reports

Learning Objectives

  • Create dynamic, reproducible reports
  • Markdown syntax
  • Inline R code in documents
  • Producing documents in .pdf, .html, etc.

Literate Programming

  • A programming paradigm introduced by Donald Knuth
  • The program (or analysis) is explained in natural language
    • The source code is interspersed
  • The whole document is executable

We can produce these documents in RStudio

Create an R Markdown file

  • R Markdown files embody Literate Programming in R
  • File \(\rightarrow\) New File \(\rightarrow\) R Markdown
  • Enter a title
  • Save the file (gets the extension .Rmd)

Components of an R Markdown file

  • Header information is fenced by ---
---
title: "Literate Programming"
author: "Leighton Pritchard"
date: "04/12/2017"
output: html_document
---
  • Natural language is written as plain text
This is an R Markdown document. Markdown is a simple formatting syntax
  • R code (which is executable) is fenced by backticks

Click on Knit

Creating a Report

12. Conclusion

If we got this far…

You’ve learned:

  • About R, RStudio and how to set up a project with version control
  • How to load data into R and produce summary statistics and plots with base tools
  • All the data types in R, and most of the important data structures
  • How to install and use packages
  • How to use the Tidyverse to manipulate and plot data
  • How to use program flow control and functions
  • How to create dynamic reports in R

WELL DONE!!